EDITORIAL: If you read the more recent books about Kokoda and other important battles of WWII that helped establish our real independence and our importance as a Nation in post-World War 2, you will see how deeply scared were many of those young and not so young men and women who trained, fought and died, as they saw it to shape a better World for them and their loved ones.
Many of our warriors had very little except hardship, before facing much more BUT many had a remarkable vision for a New World. Australia had enjoyed a lot of prosperity before WWI and our soldiers set out with much optimism. Many of our WWII warriors were cynics because of the harshness of the Great Depression, but they served their Nation with no less courage and determination, AND many of those who came back made then gave remarakable leadership to this wonderful country.
Just have a look at those like
Lieutenant Colonel Sir Ernest Edward "Weary" Dunlop and others.
Whatever, to understand Australia and WWII, you have to understand Australia and the Great Depression
..............................................................................................................
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression_in_Australia
Great Depression in Australia
The Great Depression of the 1930s was an economic catastrophe that severely affected most nations of the world, and Australia was not immune. In fact, Australia, with its extreme dependence on exports, particularly primary products such as wool and wheat,[1] is thought to have been one of the hardest-hit countries in the Western world along with Canada and Germany.[citation needed] Unemployment reached a record high of 29% in 1932,[2] (although 32% has also been quoted[3]) and gross domestic product declined by 10% between 1929 and 1931.[4][5] There were also incidents of civil unrest, particularly in Australia's largest city, Sydney.[6]
Contents |
1920s: The calm before the storm...
World War I had depleted Britain's savings and foreign investments, and wartime inflation had upset the United Kingdom's terms of trade. A sluggish economy in Britain naturally reduced British demand for imports from Australia throughout the 1920s and this had affected Australia's balance of payments also. Throughout the 1920s the Australian unemployment rate floated between 6% and 11%.[2]
The Great War had also caused many necessary infrastructure projects to be delayed or abandoned, and many of these were begun in the 1920s, including the Sydney Harbour Bridge[7] and Sydney's underground railway system[8] in addition to the Commonwealth government beginning to fund major highways.[9] New dams and grain elevators were built, and the rural railway network was expanded in nearly every state. Large sums of government money were made available to provide returned First World War servicemen with farmland and agricultural equipment under soldier settlement schemes.[10] All these publicly funded projects were paid for by loans raised by both state and federal governments. Most of these loans were raised on capital markets in the City of London at an average of £30 million per annum.[1]
1929: The storm erupts
In 1925 the British government decided to put the pound sterling back onto the Gold Standard at pre-1913 parity. This had the immediate effect of making British exports far less competitive in international markets. Because Australia pegged the Australian pound to the pound sterling, this also affected Australian terms of trade.
Falling export demand and commodity prices placed massive downward pressures on wages, particularly in industries such as coal mining. Due to falling prices, bosses were unable to pay the wages that workers wanted. The result was a series of crippling strikes in many sectors of the economy in the late 1920s. Coal miners' strikes in the winter of 1929 brought much of the economy to its knees. A riot at a picket line in the Hunter Valley mining town of Rothbury saw police shoot one teenage coal miner dead.
The conservative Prime Minister of Australia, Stanley Bruce, wished to dismantle the conciliation and arbitration system of judicially-supervised collective bargaining which had been the cornerstone of Australia's industrial relations system since the 1900s. Arbitration made it difficult for employers to adjust wages in response to market conditions.
The opposition Australian Labor Party, led by James Scullin, successfully depicted Stanley Bruce as wanting to destroy Australia's high wages and working conditions in the 1929 federal election. Scullin was elected Prime Minister in a landslide which saw Stanley Bruce voted out as the Member for Flinders, the only time prior to the 2007 federal election that a sitting Prime Minister lost his seat.
1929-1935: Scullin and Lang
Seventeen days after James Scullin was sworn in as Prime Minister, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 occurred, marking what is now perceived to be the beginning of the Great Depression.[citation needed]
Throughout Scullin's term, commodity prices continued to fall, unemployment rose, and Australia's big cities were depopulated as thousands of unemployed men took to the countryside in search of menial agricultural work.
The stagnant economy had reduced economic activity and therefore tax revenues. However, the debt commitments of both state and federal governments remained the same. Australia became severely at risk of defaulting on its foreign debt which had been accumulated during the relative prosperity and infrastructure-building frenzy of the 1920s.
Prime Minister Scullin and his Treasurer Ted Theodore found themselves unable to make ameliorating measures by the conservative majority in the Senate.
The Bank of England was concerned by the possibility of default and in 1930 sent an envoy, Sir Otto Niemeyer, to lecture Australian governments on the virtues of austerity and belt-tightening. At a conference in Melbourne in that year, all state and federal governments agreed to slash government spending, cancel public works, cut public service salaries and decrease welfare benefits. This became known as the "Melbourne Agreement", or the "Premiers' Plan".
Starting in September 1930, the Australian Banks began to slowly devalue the Australian Pound, and a year later it had been devalued 30% against the Pound Sterling.
In early 1931 the Federal Government defaulted on interest payments on its bonds, forcing a reduction from 9 to 3 percent.
Jack Lang, the Labor Party Leader of the Opposition in New South Wales and a fiery left-wing populist, campaigned vigorously against the provisions of the Melbourne Agreement. He was elected in a landslide in the NSW state election of 1930.
In 1931 at an economic crisis conference in Canberra, Jack Lang issued his own programme for economic recovery. The "Lang Plan" advocated the repudiation of interest payments to overseas creditors until domestic conditions improved, the abolition of the Gold Standard to be replaced by a "Goods Standard" where the amount of money in circulation was linked to the amount of goods produced, and the immediate injection of £18 million of new money into the economy in the form of Commonwealth Bank of Australia credit. The Prime Minister and all other state Premiers refused.
The Labor Party soon split into three separate factions. Jack Lang and his supporters, mainly in New South Wales, were expelled from the party and formed a left-wing splinter party officially known as the "New South Wales Labor Party," popularly known as "Lang Labor". The Minister for Public Works and Railways, Joseph Lyons, led a conservative faction, which believed in classical economic policy and loyalty to the [[yeahh yeahh ]] in all circumstances. It merged with the opposition Nationalist Party to form the United Australia Party. A moderate faction led by Scullin and Theodore remained in government until the United Australia Party and Lang Labor combined at the end of 1931 in a parliamentary vote of no confidence, which resulted in a federal election. Joseph Lyons and the UAP won this election in a landslide that was nearly the mirror opposite of the 1929 election.
Before being voted out of office, the Scullin government had introduced a law, the Financial Agreement Enforcement Act 1931 to force New South Wales to adhere to its debt commitments in line with the Melbourne Agreement. The federal government had paid NSW's bond installments and intended to recoup this money from the NSW Government. Premier Lang still refused to comply, and the Financial Agreement Enforcement Act 1931 was upheld by the High Court of Australia in 1932. Premier Lang still refused to hand over the money, which led the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Philip Game, to dismiss the Premier in May 1932 and call fresh elections. Jack Lang lost the election and was never to become Premier again. He later entered Federal Parliament.
Varying experiences of the Great Depression
During the Great Depression, different parts of Australian society experienced different hardships, challenges and opportunities. There was increased movement of many people to and from country areas in search of work. City and urban people planted gardens to produce fruit and vegetables. In some urban areas co-operatives were formed based on barter systems to share what was available. Shacks were built on the outskirts of large cities to house some who lost their homes, for example near the beach at Garie in the Royal National Park south of Sydney. There has been anecdotal evidence of families resorting to living in caves with authorities turning a blind eye as there were no other accommodation available. Following is more information on the hardships and challenges during this time.
Unemployed Australians
For Australians the decade of the 1930s began with problems of huge unemployment, because the fall of the stock markets on Wall Street reduced confidence throughout the world. Most governments reacted to the crisis with similar policies, aimed at slashing back government spending and paying back loans. The Australian government could do little to change the effects of the slump and the tough economic times ahead. This affected the country in many ways.[11]
Because of the economic downturn, people’s lives changed drastically. Australia had supplied huge amounts of wool for uniforms during World War 1, and many exports helped Australia achieve a high standard of living in the 1920s. The majority of the people of Australia lived very well prior to the fall, so they felt the effects of the depression strongly. Because of the severe economic contraction, the reduction of purchasing goods, employers couldn’t afford to keep excessive workers. A five year unemployment average for 1930-34 was 23.4%,with a peak of 30% of the nation being unemployed in 1932. This was one of the most severe unemployment rates in the industrialised world, exceeded onlydhsihdsharvwe by Germany.[12]
Many hundreds of thousands of Australians suddenly faced the humiliation of poverty and unemployment. This was still the era of traditional social family structure, where the man was expected to be the sole bread winner. Soup kitchens and charity groups made brave attempts to feed the many starving and destitute. The suicide rates increased dramatically and it became clear that Australia had limits to the resources for dealing with the crisis. The depression's sudden and wide spread unemployment hit the soldiers who had just returned from war the hardest as they were in their mid thirties and still suffering the trauma of their wartime experiences. At night many slept covered in newspapers at Sydney’s Domain or at Salvation Army refugees.[13]
The limited jobs that did arise were viciously fought for. The job vacancies were advertised in the daily newspaper, which formed massive queues to search for any job available. This then caused the race to arrive first at the place of employment (the first person to turn up was usually hired.) This is depicted in the Australian movie Caddie.
1932-1939: A slow recovery
Unlike the United States, where Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal stimulated the American economy, New Zealand where Michael Savage's pioneering welfare state rapidly reduced hardship, or the United Kingdom where rearmament (from 1936) reduced unemployment, there was no significant mechanism for economic recovery in Australia.
Federation in 1901 had granted only limited power to the federal government. For example, income taxes were collected by the State governments. High tariffs worked to hurt the economy, but powerful interest groups permitted no change in this aspect of policy. There was no significant banking reform or nationalisation of private businesses.
The devaluation of the Australian pound, abandonment of the Gold Standard, recovery of major trading partners like the United Kingdom and public works projects instituted by State and local governments led to a slow recovery. Unemployment, which peaked at 29% in 1932, was 11% at the start of the Second World War.
Legacy of the Great Depression in Australia
During the Second World War, the Australian Labor Party formed a government in the House of Representatives, led by two socialist prime ministers: John Curtin (1941–1945) and Ben Chifley (1945–1949). Curtin and Chifley, who often used the spectre of another depression in his campaign rhetoric, used emergency wartime powers to introduce a command economy in Australia based on Keynesian principles. Unemployment was virtually eliminated in this period, being reduced below 2 percent. In 1942 income tax became federally controlled with the states conceding that the war effort needed a centrally controlled financial basis.
Chifley also attempted to nationalise the banking sector, claiming that public control over the finance industry would assist in preventing further depressions. These plans saw bitter and protracted opposition from the media, conservative parties and the banks themselves, and the High Court of Australia ruled that the proposed nationalisation of banks was unconstitutional.
In 1944 Curtin announced the plan for a white paper on full employment. This white paper served a variety of roles; to establish the priority of full employment; to ensure the depression would not recur; and to propose ways to make these objectives possible. Dr H C 'Nugget' Coombs as director-general of the Reconstruction Ministry had major input into this policy. The economic theories proposed by J M Keynes in 1936 were a major influence on the white paper.
Chifley's government was soundly defeated by the Liberal-Country Party Coalition led by Robert Menzies in 1949. Though Menzies was a conservative, his sixteen subsequent years in power saw the government continue the use of Keynesian methods in economic policy as well as further expansion of the welfare state and public services such as higher education, research and development and public housing. Public support for these may have been a legacy of mass experiences of poverty during the Great Depression.
See also
- The Susso, welfare in Australia originating in the Great Depression
Book: Great Depression | |
Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. |
References
- ^ a b L.F. Giblin (1930-04-28). "Australia, 1930: An inaugural lecture". http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/giblin/australi.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
- ^ a b Australian Bureau of Statistics (1933). "Year Book Australia 1933 - Chapter 24: Labour, Wages & Prices". http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/1301.01933?OpenDocument. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- ^ http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/greatdepression/
- ^ Siriwardana, Mahinda (June 1998). "Can Policy-Makers Learn from History? A General Equilibrium Analysis of the Recovery Policies of the 1930s Great Depression in Australia". Journal of Policy Modeling 20 (3): 361–392. doi:10.1016/S0161-8938(97)00011-2. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V82-3SX6NN3-C&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=15f0f76a1b3f6b7b8c7682ff2eded875. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- ^ Wendy Lewis, Simon Balderstone and John Bowan (2006). Events That Shaped Australia. New Holland. p. 126. ISBN 9781741104929.
- ^ John Birmingham (2000). Leviathan: The unauthorised biography of Sydney. Random House. ISBN 9780091842031.
- ^ Commonwealth Department of Environment, Heritage and the Arts (14 August 2008). "Sydney's Harbour Bridge - Australia's Culture Portal". http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/harbourbridge/. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ Bozier, Rolfe. "City Circle". http://www.nswrail.net/lines/show.php?name=NSW:city_circle&mode=history. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government (29 August 2006). "A History of Australian Road and Rail". http://www.auslink.gov.au/publications/reports/history.aspx. Retrieved 28 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (1925). "1301.0 - Year Book Australia, 1925 - Settlement of Returned Soldiers and Sailors 1914-18". http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/featurearticlesbyCatalogue/72BB159FA215052FCA2569DE0020331D?OpenDocument. Retrieved 28 February 2008.
- ^ http://www.skwirk.com.au/p-c_s-56_u-418_t-1062_c-4093/VIC/10/The-Commonwealth-Governments-Response-to-the-Depression/The-Great-Depression/Australia-between-the-Wars/SOSE-History/
- ^ Paul Kelly "100 years,The Australian Story" ABC Books 2001
- ^ Retro Active Series 2 by Maureen Anderson, Anne Low, Jeffery Conroy and Ian Keese
- http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/greatdepression/
- Paul Kelly "100 years,The Australian Story" ABC Books 2001
External links
- The Depression Years on Picture Australia
- ....................................................................................
http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/great-depression
The Great Depression
Depression: A time of low economic activity, distinguished from a recession1 by being prolonged and sustained, characterised by continuing falls in output, high and rising unemployment and companies burdened with unsold stocks 2because demand is low.
Edna Carew, The Language of Money: 3 3, from the ANZ website 4
Unemployment in Australia
unknown, Unemployed men receiving food handouts, photograph: gelatin silver. Image courtesy of Australian History Organisation5.
The Great Depression (1929–32) was a time of extreme hardship for people in Australia. For many people this period began before the market crash in prices and lasted until the Second World War (1939-1945).
Even before the devastating stock market crash on Wall Street (the centre of stock market trading in New York, United States of America), unemployment in Australia was already at ten per cent. The Wall Street crash6 in October 1929 signalled the beginning of a severe depression for the whole industrialised world.
After the crash unemployment in Australia more than doubled to twenty-one per cent in mid-1930, and reached its peak in mid-1932 when almost thirty-two per cent of Australians were out of work.
A contributing factor was the visit in 1930 by Sir Otto Niemeyer7 from the Bank of England who visited Australia to advise governments to implement a deflationary policy. Niemeyer contended that wages must be 'depressed' (i.e. cut) to make exports more competitive and to raise profits. Niemeyer advised savage cuts in all existing social services. More significantly Niemeyer demanded that Australia not default on her international loan obligations to Britain. This created great political differences and resulted in the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, being dismissed when he refused to pay the loan obligations.
What caused the Great Depression?
The ultimate cause of the Great Depression is still the subject of debate by economists8. Although the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange determined its timing there were several factors involved:
- A fall in export prices and sales
- A fall in overseas loans leading to a reduction in government capital9 spending
- A fall in residential construction
At the time, privately owned banks controlled Australia's monetary policy10 and the country relied heavily on borrowing money from other countries to bring in new investment. When the banks refused to extend overdrafts11 to Australia the government began selling off gold reserves.
Social impact
CR Gotts, Sustenance projects during the depression - campsite in the forest, 1921–1940, photograph: gelatin silver. Image courtesy of the National Library of Australia12: nla.pic-an20865637-49
The Great Depression's impact on Australian society was devastating. Without work and a steady income many people lost their homes and were forced to live in makeshift dwellings with poor heating and sanitation.
A Great Depression survivor recalls the hardship:
People were forced into all sorts of tricks and expediencies to survive, all sorts of shabby and humiliating compromises. In thousands and thousands of homes fathers deserted the family and went on the track (became itinerant workers), or perhaps took to drink. Grown sons sat in the kitchen day after day, playing cards, studying the horses [betting on horse racing] and trying to scrounge enough for a threepenny bet, or engaged in petty crime, mothers cohabited with male boarders who were in work and who might support the family, daughters attempted some amateur prostitution and children were in trouble with the police.
Lowenstein, Wendy. Weevils in the Flour: an oral record of the 1930s depression in Australia , 20th anniversary edition, Scribe, Fitzroy, Melbourne, Australia, p.2, 1998.
David Moore, Redfern Interior, photograph: gelatin silver. Image courtesy of the Joseph Lebovic Gallery.
Other social consequences of the Great Depression included:
- working class children consistently leaving school at thirteen or fourteen years old
- married women carrying a greater domestic burden: home-making was still considered a woman's role, so even if a woman had worked all day scrubbing floors to bring in some money, her unemployed husband would still expect her to cook dinner and keep the house in order
- jobs being easier to find for young people, but the work had little future career prospects and many young workers were sacked by the time they turned sixteen, eighteen or twenty-one years of age
- migrants, particularly those from Italy and southern Europe, being resented because they worked for less wages than others despite having relatively little in the way of family or friends to call on for help.
Political consequences
Original members of the Nationalist Socialist Democratic Workers' Party, 1934, South Australia. Image courtesy of Australian War Memorial13
During the Great Depression, many Australians lost confidence in the abilities of their government representatives. A number of radical or extremist organisations gathered strength and popularity as a result of the large-scale public dissatisfaction.
On the political left communist14, socialist, workers and unemployed organisations actively opposed forced house evictions, while nationalistic and fascist-style groups like the New Guard15 enjoyed increased membership on the right of politics.
In Australia's rapidly developing new capital city of Canberra, building construction came to an abrupt halt, leaving a population of 7,000 in limbo. Workers were laid off and the body responsible for developing the city, the Federal Capital Commission, was abolished.
Sydney Harbour Bridge
unknown, Construction of Sydney Harbour Bridge, photograph: gelatin silver. Image courtesy of Syndey Harbour Bridge Info.
The Sydney Harbour Bridge16 was a great triumph, began in April 1923, that kept many Australians employed during the Depression until its opening in 1932. On 19 March 1932 it was finally opened.
The Labor premier of New South Wales Jack Lang, was to open the bridge by cutting a ribbon at its southern end. However, Colonel Francis De Groot, a Dublin-born antique dealer and member of the New Guard, formed in 1931 in opposition to Labor, dramatically intervened on horseback by slashing the ribbon with his sword17 and declaring the bridge open. The ribbon was hurriedly retied and Lang performed the official opening ceremony
Prime Ministers during the Great Depression
Unknown photographer, Portrait of James Henry Scullin, 193-, photograph. Image courtesy of National Library of Australia18: nla.pic-an23310451
Labor Prime Minister James Scullin19 was Australia's first Catholic Prime Minister and the first to be of Irish descent. He came to power on 22 October 1929, just a week before the stock market crash in Wall Street. His reign lasted until 6 January 1932 and was plagued by the extremely hard economic conditions and internal political problems within the Australian Labor Party20 (ALP).
Former Tasmanian Premier Joseph Lyons21 was a minister in Scullin's government during the Depression and was responsible for the portfolios of Postmaster-General, and Works and Railways. He advocated an economic policy that included a balanced budget and reduction in government spending, which was rejected by the ALP Caucus.
After resigning from Cabinet on 26 January 1931, Lyons defected from the ALP to a movement called the 'All For Australia League', which later became the United Australia Party (UAP). With Lyons as leader, the new UAP contributed to the demise of the Scullin Labor government and Lyons became Prime Minister on 6 January 1932.
unknown, De Groot cutting the ribbon on the Harbour Bridge, 19 March 1932, Bradfield Collection, Rare Books and Special Collections Library, University of Sydney.
Meanwhile, in the important state of New South Wales, Labor Premier Jack Lang22 had proposed a plan to maintain wages and use loans to create public works. His economic 'Lang Plan' of 1931 had been rejected by the Scullin federal Labor government and contributed to the internal crisis in the ALP.
Lang had decided to withhold interest payments on British loans, in open defiance of the federal government, although other countries were also withholding payments. Prime Minister Lyons stepped in and paid the interest owing, then passed a bill to recover the money from New South Wales. The Governor General of New South Wales, Philip Game, dismissed Lang on 13 May 1932.
Lyons was able to bring stability to government after the difficulties associated with the impact of the Great Depression and internal problems within the ALP. He held the UAP together for seven years and remained in power until he died in office on 7 April 1939. He was one of the longest-serving Prime Ministers in Australian political history.
Getting Australia working again
At the time leading up to the Great Depression, the federal government did not have a centralised unemployment assistance program. Other than relief from charities and a patchwork of agencies and private organisations, destitute people had to rely on employment projects23 and public works projects24 often funded by state government loans from overseas.
David Moore, Boys from slums, photograph: gelatin silver. Image courtesy of the Joseph Lebovic Gallery.
After the Wall Street crash, the federal government allocated £1,000,000 to the states to provide relief to the unemployed. It was hoped that the money - to be used for road works - could also free up funds to help the unemployed in other areas. But the numbers of unemployed continued to grow.
In July 1930, a further £1,000,000 was made available to the states for proposed public works (only projects that turned enough of a profit to cover interest repayments on loans were accepted), followed by another £500,000 in December of that year. Most of the work generated was hard manual labour. The narrow road built to the summit of Mount Wellington in Tasmania is an example of the kinds of projects unemployed Australians were carrying out.
The recovery
James Scullin's Labor government, with its internal party disputes and deflationary economic policy, was unable to bring much relief from the Great Depression. By the time his government was voted out in early 1932, Australia had felt the effects of the economic disaster more than other nations around the world.
Even after the Lyons' UAP came to power, recovery in Australia was slow. Under the more conservative rule of Lyons, Australia reestablished its ties with Britain and sought to follow its lead in solving the economic problems. Trade deals with the United States and Japan were dropped in favour of Britain and Australia tended to follow Britain's policy of appeasement in order to prevent war with fascist powers in Europe.
David Moore, Meat queue, 1940, photograph: gelatin silver. Image courtesy of the Joseph Lebovic Gallery.
As Wendy Lowenstein writes, depressions do not have a distinct beginning and end, and individuals experience economic hardships in very different ways.
A bush worker remembers: 'Depression! There's always been a depression in Australia as far back as I can remember. I was walking the country looking for work from the end of the First World War until the start of the Second, till 1939!'
Lowenstein, Wendy. Weevils in the Flour: an oral record of the 1930s depression in Australia , 20th anniversary edition, Scribe, Fitzroy, Melbourne, Australia, p.1, 1998.
Useful links
- Australia 1930: An inaugural lecture - Professor LF Giblin25
- 1930 to 1939 - Depression and Crisis: New South Wales Parliament26
- Trade Union Influence in the 1920s and 1930s: Teaching Heritage NSW27
- Working for the Dole: Commonwealth Relief During the Depression - National Archives of Australia28
- New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania: The Great Depression - AustLii Reconciliation and Social Justice Library29
- Working for the Dole: Appendix One, Chronology of Events - National Archives of Australia30
- Australian governments did not have the theory, the means or the will to adequately handle the Depression: Thomas Dickson, Murdoch University31
- Financial Dictionary - contains articles about the most popular and commonly used financial terms32
Prime Ministers during the Great Depression
- National Museum of Australia - James Scullin33
- National Museum of Australia - Joseph Lyons34
- National Library of Australia - Fact Sheet 96 - JT Lang and Lang Labor35
- Australia's Prime Ministers36
Last updated: 1 October 2009
Notes
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?action=content%26content=recession
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?action=content%26content=stock
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?
- http://www.anz.com/
- http://www.australianhistory.org/
- http://www.hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery06/index.html
- http://www.sydneyharbourbridge.info/jacklang.html
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?action=content%26content=economists
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?action=content%26content=capital
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?action=content%26content=monetary_policy
- http://www.anz.com/edna/dictionary.asp?action=content%26content=overdraft
- http://www.nla.gov.au/
- http://www.awm.gov.au/
- http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/1995/209/209p13.htm
- http://www.naa.gov.au/about-us/publications/fact-sheets/fs183.aspx
- http://sydney-harbour-bridge.bos.nsw.edu.au/building-the-bridge/bradfield-and-lang.php
- http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,21403790-5012637,00.html
- http://www.nla.gov.au/
- http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/james_scullin/
- http://www.alp.org.au/
- http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/joseph_lyons/
- http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/members.nsf/0/1bc554071d7a4c2bca256cb7001732d0?OpenDocument
- http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/publications/research_guides/guides/depression/chapter1.htm
- http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/publications/research_guides/guides/depression/chapter6.htm
- http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/%7Eecon/ugcm/3ll3/giblin/australi.htm
- http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/web/common.nsf/key/HistoryDepression
- http://www.teachingheritage.nsw.edu.au/b_expressing/wb3_turner.html
- http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/publications/research_guides/guides/depression/pages/introduction.htm
- http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/sinodisp/au/other/IndigLRes/rciadic/regional/nsw-vic-tas/180.html
- http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/publications/research_guides/guides/depression/appendix1.htm
- http://homepages.picknowl.com.au/eranet/dickson.htm
- http://www.financialdictionary.net/
- http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/james_scullin/
- http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/joseph_lyons/
- http://www.naa.gov.au/about-us/publications/fact-sheets/fs96.aspx
- http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-stories/history-colonial-conflict-and-modern
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-national-anthem
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-political-cartooning
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/canberra-australias-capital-city
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/federation
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/governors-general
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/royal-visits-to-australia
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/sydney-harbour-bridge
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-women-in-politics
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/melbourne-cup
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-jazz-mainstream
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-civil-aviation
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/early-austn-aviation
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/aviatrices
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/don-bradman
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/olive-cotton
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/max-dupain
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/modern-austn-fashion
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/first-wave-classical-ballet
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/grace-cossington-smith
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/angry-penguin-painters
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/hill-end-painters
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/margaret-preston
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/radio-in-australia
- http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/urban-renewal
http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/great-depression